Rhetoric
in Composition and Communication:
historical
contexts and national trends in undergraduate curricula
Thomas P. Miller tpm@u.arizona.edu
Homepage: http://www.gened.arizona.edu/tmiller/default.html
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Discussions
of how rhetoricians in English and communications can work more closely
together have focused on shared areas of study.
In considering such possibilities, it is important to look past
prevailing models of disciplines as distinct areas of scholarship to examine
the pragmatics of what practitioners do. The
distinction between fields of study and fields of work is particularly
important in considering the assumptions and purposes of rhetorical studies. On
both sides of the modern divide between the arts and sciences, rhetoric is
concerned with the pragmatics of discourse--with the situational constraints,
collective purposes, and political assumptions that shape the conditions and
consequences of ideas and practices, including those that define rhetoric
itself. Assuming such a
perspective can help us to reflect upon the potentials of work with rhetoric
in communications and English studies.
In
one of the more notable attempts to foster collaborations between rhetoricians
in communications and English departments, the Alliance of Rhetoric
Societies’ Conference on the Status and Future of Rhetorical Studies, one of
the four sets of questions set for the discussion concerned teaching: “What
does it mean to teach rhetoric? What does it mean to teach composition
and performance seriously? What is the relationship between rhetoric and
composition? Should they be distinguished?” (http://www.comm.umn.edu/ARS/).
A couple of points in these framing questions bear note: it is assumed
that the parallel to composition in communications is “performance,” but
that parallel is apparently not strong enough to support the following line of
questioning, which focuses on only one of the two disciplinary points of
reference. The responses of the
participants from communications and English departments are interesting in a
predictable way because those in communications tend to treat rhetoric as a
theoretical and critical art, and the others largely identify rhetorical
studies with the teaching of composition.
Such tendencies arise from the disciplinary locations and locutions that shape what rhetoric has come to be about in communications and English departments. The two fields of work have historically defined each other in ways that bear note. On one side of the arts and sciences, rhetoric has been defined by the dominance of literary studies, and on the other by social science methodologies. The divisions run through the types of work done in the fields. In English, rhetoric’s identification with composition was marginalized when rhetoricians concerned with public address and journalism left the area, leaving composition and “creative writing” as polar opposites without journalistic genres and other forms of public discourse to mediate between them. In communications, the identification of rhetoric with speech came to be compounded by a tendency to define rhetorical theory by classical models. These tendencies have been called into question by the technological changes that have undermined the traditional functions of English departments as bastions of the culture of the book, and the interdisciplinary trends that are identified with cultural studies have opened up possibilities to redress institutional divisions. For that to occur, we need to attend to the differing functions and institutional dynamics in the two fields of work. Some of those differences can be noted by taking account of enrollments in the decades when rhetoric and composition were reestablished in English departments and the comparative graduate and undergraduate enrollments today:
Degrees
in English, Communications and Selected Disciplines
|
Discipline
|
1970-1 BAs |
1980-1 BAs |
1990-1 BAs |
2000-1 BAs |
2000-1 Masters |
2000-1 Doctorates |
|
Total |
839,730 |
935,140 |
1,094,538 |
1,244,171 |
542,010 |
44,904 |
|
Business |
114,729 |
198,983 |
249,311 |
265,746 |
116,475 |
1180 |
|
Communications |
10,324 |
29,428 |
51,650 |
58,013 |
5,218 |
368 |
|
Communications
technologies |
478 |
1,854 |
1,123 |
1,050 |
533 |
2 |
|
Computer and info
sciences |
2,388 |
15,121 |
25,083 |
41,954 |
16,038 |
768 |
|
Education |
176,307 |
108,074 |
110,807 |
105,566 |
145,104 |
6716 |
|
English lang and
lit/letters |
64,342 |
32,254 |
51,841 |
51,419 |
6,941 |
1,506 |
|
Psychology |
38,187 |
41,068 |
58,655 |
73,534 |
15,196 |
4,659 |
Table drawn up from tables
252 and 257 from the U.S. Department of Education, National Center for
Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System, (http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d02/tables/dt252.asp;
and http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d02/tables/dt257.asp)
Selected
Mission Statements:
Lake Erie College
WHAT
IS THE COMMUNICATIONS MAJOR?
This
major provides students with courses both in writing processes and in the
history and theory of different forms of communication. This double focus is
based on the belief that the processes of oral and written communication must
be grounded in substantive understanding of their theoretical and historical
backgrounds.
WHAT
IS THE ENGLISH MAJOR?
The
major in English is directed towards the student who seeks a background in
British and American literature as the basis of study in the liberal arts or
who wishes to pursue graduate studies in this field. Students may also wish to
combine courses in English with a major in another field such as History or
Communications.
(http://www.lec.edu/academics/academ1.html)
Communication and Culture Department, Indiana
University
The
Department of Communication and Culture (CMCL) advances the study of
communication as a cultural practice, and teaches an array of perspectives
that enable students to prepare broadly for a variety of careers. Requirements
for the major and minor are flexible in order to promote individualized
programs of study in three interrelated aspects of communication: rhetoric,
media, and performance and ethnographic studies.
Rhetorical
studies orient students to the strategic dimension of human communication
associated with deliberation, advocacy, and persuasion in a variety of social,
political, and professional settings. Studies of media focus primarily on film
and television, with additional emphasis on topics such as radio, recorded
music, and interactive digital technologies. Performance and ethnographic
studies explore an array of communicative practices, from the conversations
and disputes of everyday life to artful performances at cultural events, which
are the competencies essential for participation in social life. It also
brings intercultural and transnational considerations into focus by examining
how diversity and differences of various kinds are negotiated across
boundaries. Together, these three dimensions examine linkages among corporate,
social, and governmental organizations, ideology, and politics, showing how
communication influences public cultures across the globe. They provide a
strong grounding in the history, theory, production, and critique of
communication that ranges from interpersonal dialogue, storytelling, and
presentational speaking to film and television. http://www.indiana.edu/~bulletin/iub/coas/comm.html#course
The
Department of English has as its most fundamental goal helping all students to
develop literacy and analytical skills that will lead to life long learning.
. . . [W]e strive to help students become literate, articulate, and
open-minded, qualities that are the hallmarks of a liberal education.
The study of literature and the exploration of language and writing –
the primary activities in the Department of English – are critical elements
to liberal education. One way the
department contributes to the achievement of a liberal education is through
its freshman writing and literature series, where we strive to help students
understand the function and power of language and appreciate our shared
literary heritage. . . .
The
Department of English serves those students who seek to become teachers of
literature and writing as well as those who wish to enter graduate and
professional education in literature and writing.
We also serve those students who wish to develop their writing and
other communication skills for career planning in business and industry. . . .
http://www.english.appstate.edu/mission.html
Communications
Program offered by Depts. of English and Art and Visual Culture, Centenary College
Communicating successfully in our technology-infused world requires a
combination of strong speaking and writing skills as well as an in-depth
understanding of visual and interactive modes of expression such as
photography, film and multimedia. Centenary communication majors explore all
of these areas through a rich body of courses that approach human
communication as a cultural and social phenomenon.
Our project-oriented curriculum challenges students to draw on their
broad liberal arts education and their own creativity to address the types of
problems communication professionals face regularly. In writing and production
courses such as Writing for the Mass Media, Video and Film Production, and
Multimedia Design, professors work closely with students to help them learn
skills and develop strategies necessary for producing creative, effective
media texts. Similarly, professors in courses such as History of Photography
and Cyberculture provide opportunities for students to investigate the
relationship between media and culture; in so doing, student develop
analytical skills crucial to understanding how media texts influence and are,
in turn, influences by society. The major culminates in the Senior Seminar in
which students prepare for their job or graduate school search by creating
electronic portfolios that feature the best examples from the communication
projects begun in their courses, internships, community service, and campus
media work.
The communication curriculum is designed to give students experience
with a wide range of media while also allowing them to concentrate their major
coursework in the medium that best corresponds to their personal and
professional goals. After getting a broad introduction to communication
studies students pursue one of three tracks: professional writing,
film/television/video, or new media.
http://www.centenary.edu/majors/communication/
What
is an english major about, besides literature?
A
series of national studies of undergraduate English programs were undertaken
by the MLA beginning in 1984, including a survey of over five hundred two-year
and four-year institutions in 1991. Two
thirds of all undergraduate courses were in writing, half were in composition,
and one quarter were in literature. While
the percentages were higher in public than in private institutions (67% vs.
49%), 60% of all respondents said that computers were used in at least some
writing classes, with only 13% noting their use in literature classes.
With respect to English education, most departments responded that they
supported such offerings, and almost twenty percent responded that they were
working to expand them, while another quarter responded that they received
little attention.
Requirements and
majors varied by the size and types of institutions. Many large institutions (more than 15,000) had more
wide-ranging requirements, but such departments were less likely than either
mid-sized public institutions or departments with joint programs to require
linguistics, the history of language, rhetoric, and general or advanced
writing courses. Huber speculates
that this pattern may be due to the fact that these courses were required in
English education majors, and there clearly was a broad concern for raising
the disciplinary base of education majors. The following statistics are based
on a sample of over 300 departments:
|
|
Percentages of
Majors Requiring Writing and Language Courses
|
||||
|
|
by
type of departments |
Joint |
Separate
English Depts. |
||
|
|
Midsized |
Small |
Very Large |
||
|
|
Writing |
45.3
|
33.8
|
23.3
|
26.9 |
|
|
Lang, ling, and
rhetoric |
32.8
|
30.8
|
10.0
|
17.9 |
|
|
Adv. Comp or writing
|
58.3
|
57.4
|
29.6
|
34.2 |
|
|
History of English or comparative
grammar |
62.5
|
48.5
|
23.2
|
35.4 |
Bettina
Huber. “Undergraduate English Programs: Findings from an MLA
Survey of the
1991-1992 Year.” ADE Bulletin 115 (Winter 1996): 34-73
While most departments (56%) offered
concentrations in more than literature, the percentages increase with the size
of the institution, with 71.1% of institutions of more than 15,000 having
other majors, 58.6% of institutions with 2,000 to 15,000, and 38.9% of those
with fewer than 2,000 students.
|
Percentage of Departments Offering Courses in 1989-91 |
|||
|
Courses Offered |
2 Yr |
4 Yr |
All |
|
Composition
|
97.4
|
95.6
|
96.2
|
|
Creative
Wrtg |
74.4
|
89.6
|
84.5
|
|
Develop
English |
88.5
|
63.2
|
70.6
|
|
Prof/
tech wrtg |
57.7
|
65.4
|
63.2
|
|
Upper-level
Comp/rhet |
0.0
|
79.7
|
55.5
|
|
Journalism
|
52.6
|
36.5
|
41.4
|
|
Rhet/comp
theory |
9.0
|
40.1
|
30.9
|
|
Am
lit survey |
81.4
|
86.8
|
85.1
|
|
Brit
lit survey |
71.8
|
81.9
|
78.8
|
|
World
lit survey |
60.3
|
60.7
|
60.9
|
|
Shakespeare
|
37.2
|
97.3
|
78.8
|
|
Chaucer
|
0.6
|
72.5
|
50.8
|
|
Milton
|
0.0
|
56.6
|
39.3
|
|
Other
single- or dual author |
2.6
|
45.9
|
32.6
|
|
Genre
courses |
48.1
|
82.4
|
71.6
|
|
Period
courses |
14.1
|
75.8
|
57.1
|
|
Lit
crit/ theory |
1.3
|
74.2
|
52.1
|
|
History
Engl lang |
3.2
|
69.0
|
49.0
|
|
Lit
analysis |
0.6
|
27.7
|
19.5
|
|
Women
writers |
33.3
|
71.2
|
59.4
|
|
Ethnic/minority
lit |
24.4
|
69.0
|
55.3
|
|
Film
or film &lit |
40.4
|
61.5
|
55.2
|
|
Linguistics
|
5.8
|
50.0
|
36.6
|
|
Myth/folklore
|
23.7
|
42.3
|
36.5
|
|
Speech
|
51.3
|
23.4
|
32.1
|
|
Comparative
grammar |
3.8
|
34.9
|
25.4
|
|
Number
of depts. |
156
|
364
|
524
|
Percentages
of Concentrations in Departments Offering Concentrations
|
||
|
Area
of Concentration |
1991-92
|
1884-85
|
|
Literature (general)
|
72.2
|
|
|
Creative writing |
54.6
|
56.9
|
|
Writing (e.g.,
professional, technical) |
45.9
|
29.2
|
|
English education |
42.8
|
57.4
|
|
American literature |
31.4
|
|
|
Communications
(e.g., journalism, speech, drama) |
20.1
|
25.2
|
|
Linguistics |
13.4
|
19.3
|
For related research and further analysis, see “What’s going on with English majors?” at http://www.gened.arizona.edu/tmiller/ccc.htm
What
is a communications major?
As defined
by the Department of Education,
Communications studies “modes and
behavioral aspects of human communications and the formal means by which
society organizes communication.”
Comparatively less research has been done on communications majors,
which vary much more widely than programs of study in English.
While English majors have begun to expand beyond traditional
conceptions of literature, in part as a result of the influence of cultural
studies, communications do not have a traditional set of core concerns and
vary from media studies or mass communications through communication skills
programs to departments and colleges stressing journalism, broadcasting, or
the performing arts. Many such
disciplinary configurations may have rhetorical sources or associations, but
very few foreground them as a shared background for the programs of study.
The most detailed study of communications curricula
that I know of is June H. Smith and Patricia H. Turner’s “Survey of
Communication Department Curriculum in Four-Year Colleges and Universities”
in the Journal of Association for Communication Administration (1993)
1: 34-49, which surveyed the course catalogues of 856 respondents (for a
response rate of 50% of the1712 institutions they identified). Smith and Turner set out to survey curricula and then use the
results to assess how well students were being prepared for the skills that
they would need in the jobs that communications graduates typically enter in
business, education, and health and social science work. From prior studies,
Smith and Turner set out a skills inventory for communications majors:
“interpersonal communication, small group meetings, interviewing,
understanding of theory, organizational communication patterns, persuasion,
and public speaking” (35).
Smith and Turner’s study of the curricula of 856 institutions found
that 79.6% of the institutions have a communications studies department, which
in 67% of the cases used communications rather than speech to
identify the discipline. Departments in institutions with more than 10,000
students were far less likely to give multiple degrees, with less than 17%
offering multiple degrees, as compared to 40% of those with enrollments
between 1,000 and 5,000, which according to Smith and Turner tend to be
“multi-disciplinary departments offering the most diverse degree options”
(45). Speech and
“communications arts” departments were also less likely to have multiple
majors than those designated communications departments.
The 682 departments
in Smith and Turner’s sample also gave degrees in
The most offered
courses: